Secondary and tertiary storage
structures are the lowest level of the file system.
1. Magnetic Disks
Traditional magnetic
disks have the following basic structure:
·
One or more platters in
the form of disks covered with magnetic media. Hard disk platters
are made of rigid metal, while "floppy" disks are made of more
flexible plastic.
·
Each platter has two working surfaces. Older
hard disk drives would sometimes not use the very top or bottom surface of a
stack of platters, as these surfaces were more susceptible to potential damage.
·
Each working surface is divided into a
number of concentric rings called tracks. The collection of
all tracks that are the same distance from the edge of the platter, ( i.e. all
tracks immediately above one another in the following diagram ) is called
a cylinder.
·
Each track is further divided into sectors, traditionally
containing 512 bytes of data each, although some modern disks occasionally use
larger sector sizes. ( Sectors also include a header and a trailer, including
checksum information among other things. Larger sector sizes reduce the
fraction of the disk consumed by headers and trailers, but increase internal
fragmentation and the amount of disk that must be marked bad in the case of errors.
)
The
data on a hard drive is read by read-write heads. The
standard configuration uses one head per surface, each on a separate arm,
and controlled by a common arm assembly which moves all
heads simultaneously from one cylinder to another. ( Other configurations, including independent
read-write heads, may speed up disk access, but involve serious technical
difficulties. )
The storage capacity of a traditional
disk drive is equal to the number of heads ( i.e. the number of working surfaces
), times the number of tracks per surface, times the number of sectors per
track, times the number of bytes per sector. A particular physical block of
data is specified by providing the head-sector-cylinder number at which it is
located.
In operation the disk
rotates at high speed, such as 7200 rpm (120 revolutions per second.) The rate
at which data can be transferred from the disk to the computer is composed of
several steps:
The positioning time,
a.k.a. the seek time or random access time is
the time required to move the heads from one cylinder to another, and for the
heads to settle down after the move. This is typically the slowest step in the
process and the predominant bottleneck to overall transfer rates.
The rotational
latency is the amount of time required for the desired sector to
rotate around and come under the read-write head. This can range anywhere from
zero to one full revolution, and on the average will equal one-half revolution.
This is another physical step and is usually the second slowest step
behind seek time. (For a disk rotating at 7200 rpm, the average rotational
latency would be 1/2 revolution / 120 revolutions per second, or just over 4
milliseconds, a long time by computer standards.
The transfer rate,
which is the time required to move the data electronically from the disk to the
computer. (Some authors may also use the term transfer rate to refer to the
overall transfer rate, including seek time and rotational latency as well as
the electronic data transfer rate.)
Floppy disks are
normally removable. Hard drives can also be removable, and
some are even hot swappable, meaning they can be removed
while the computer is running, and a new hard drive inserted in their place.
Disk drives are
connected to the computer via a cable known as the I/O Bus. Some
of the common interface formats include Enhanced Integrated Drive Electronics,
EIDE; Advanced Technology Attachment, ATA; Serial ATA, SATA, Universal Serial
Bus, USB; Fiber Channel, FC, and Small Computer Systems Interface, SCSI.
The host
controller is at the computer end of the I/O bus, and the disk
controller is built into the disk itself. The CPU issues commands
to the host controller via I/O ports. Data is transferred between the magnetic
surface and onboard cache by the disk controller, and
then the data is transferred from that cache to the host controller and the
motherboard memory at electronic speeds.
2. Magnetic Tapes
Magnetic tapes were
once used for common secondary storage before the days of hard disk drives, but
today are used primarily for backups.
Accessing a particular
spot on a magnetic tape can be slow, but once reading or writing commences,
access speeds are comparable to disk drives.
Capacities of tape
drives can range from 20 to 200 GB and compression can double that capacity.
No comments:
Post a Comment